I tried to put above example (mastering a native language = more fluency) into a model. Example: Before stuttering onset, and even after stuttering onset: Speaking in the native language & speaking in another language doesn't affect our stuttering. Var = mastery in a language Function = none Result: Mastery or no mastery in language does not affect stuttering But after repeated reinforcement, over time: Past negative experiences > subconscious changes its perspective and needs \~\~\~\~ Stuttering occurs: 1. Subconscious evaluates stimuli at every syllable. 2. Subconscious evaluates mastery of language as negative (eg we speak in a foreign language) 3. Subconscious compares the value/outcome with its NEEDS. 4. Our NEEDS are: "*Firstly I NEED to increase my mastery of language before the subconscious mind allows the execution of the speech plan.* " 5. **Cognitive conflict occurs**: subconscious evaluates "not enough" language mastery + the subconscious relies on the NEED to increase more mastery of language. = approach-avoidance conflict is triggered. 6. Then the subconscious regulates speech execution excessively i.e., it prevents the execution of the speech plan (it perceives that the current speech plan is not "ready" to be executed) 7. Resulting in a block. 8. However: If we still continue and TRY to speak, then you can HEAR the manifestations (outwards stuttering-like disfluencies) as a consequence of the stutter mechanism Your thoughts? Var = mastery in a language Function = "I should increase mastery of language to execute speech" (NEEDS) & "The subconscious evaluates NOT ENOUGH mastery of language to execute the current syllable" Result: stuttering occurs