I've created a list of interventions that I extracted from above research. **Interventions:** * address the feeling that our speech-related predictions are unable to reliably minimize prediction error through perception and action * Address the link between freezing and perceived threat (especially when we are not consciously aware of the stimulus / expectation) * address the confidence (precision) the brain assigns to various sources of input. **Argument**: Because some prediction errors count more than others, depending on how precise (i.e., reliable or confident) the brain thinks the input is. * Address our evaluation of the severity of the perceived conflict * address the prior beliefs and likelihood functions for the generation of updated beliefs based on incoming sensory observations * address how you interpret and treat: Lower-level predictions: "prediction of what word you will hear next". * address how you interpret and treat: Higher-level predictions: “prediction of self as an effective communicator,” including agentic control and action sequencing across longer timescales like sentences. * Address Prior precision = confidence in prior beliefs. * Address Sensory precision = confidence (or faith) in the incoming sensory data. * address imprecise prior beliefs of sensory input associated with speech production; * address a precipitating inability to attenuate sensory precision during speech. * address the brain's system assessing the severity of the conflict and the appropriate amount of freezing that may be necessary for its resolution. And: Understand that this persists even after using "acceptance/desensitization" from ineffective speech therapy * address the fact that our subconscious is trying to resolve the conflict by relying on: imprecise prior beliefs & high sensory precision to speech-related predictions resulting in salient prediction errors and stuttering, and controlled processes over automatic processes. * address maladaptive precision weighting * Address the reinforcers that result in self-sustaining the stutter vicious circle. Reinforcers further reinforces prior beliefs (e.g., that stuttering will occur etc) + Increased caution to prevent errors + further precision imbalance + excessive use of cognitive control via freezing creates more cognitive conflict than it resolves which further reinforces controlled processing * re-learn the action-perception cycling (where our action i.e., motor output - is continuously adjusted based on our perception/expectation) **Argument**: Because right now, if our subconscious responds to fear of judgements, and if we then say a word, and it comes out differently than expected. It seems that our brain learns from the experience in the wrong way, and tweaks it further in the wrong way. **Argument**: Because our subconscious is designed to minimize these errors through: (1) belief updating based on errors, and (2) action (modifying the environment to confirm predictions). Our subconscious is (1) being reliant on outdated and imprecise predictions, and (2) precise predictions becoming too sensitive, which can result in an inability to optimally update prior beliefs and inaccurate predictions.